Dr. Than Tun - Modern History

World history books and foreign history books written in Burmese are very rare. Before the First World War, the Suriya Library published books such as Portuguese history, Chinese history, German history, and Japanese history. After the First World War, war history books appeared. A brief history of the world written by H.G. Wells was translated and printed. However, since they were among the books destroyed during the Second World War, it is difficult to find world history books and foreign history books written in Burmese, whether translated or collected, even in libraries known as comprehensive libraries.

After World War II, I found some world history books.

World history, human history, and the history of the world have emerged as books that can be used to study world history in a comprehensive manner. They are written in a way that shows the development of human civilization. The writing style is clear and concise. History is also divided into dynasties. It also describes the culture of the Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age, etc. It also shows how the powerful ruled the people and how the political system changed from a state of domination to a state of tyranny and tyranny. In short, these are books that educate people at all levels, from children to adults, and all are good in their own way.

Writers often have the problem of who they should write for. They write funny stories for those who want to be bored. They write stories about life's problems and the exact answers for those who want to be deeply enlightened. They write for children, adults, and scholars, even if they write about the same topic. They write for people and take their preferences and write short stories, and they also write nonsense. In writing history, they write in various ways to make people accept the colonialism, awaken patriotism, strengthen the spirit of the Union, hate the capitalist system, or to make the truth visible.

Among the world history books written in Burmese, I think there is one that is suitable for middle school students. I think there is also one for ordinary citizens who want knowledge. I think there is still a need for at least one book for those who are entering university and those who are at the age and level of education that is more comprehensive than a detailed researched book and more serious than an ordinary educational book. .

This booklet is a good way to fill in the gaps. It is written to be useful for university students and those just starting out, and to provide a foundation for the modern world.

I would also like to briefly describe the writing style. The brief political events of the world from the end of the eighteenth century to the middle of the twentieth century are based on a brief framework, and the economic, social and cultural developments are described in detail in the chapters on individual countries, relying on the history books of those countries. The names of these books are given at the end of this book. This little book has been created by taking and combining each chapter from these books. I must admit that I did not write it after spending a lot of time and research. It is a timely and necessary filling of the gap, and it would be good if a book more complete and clear than this little book appeared in the future.

Today, students read and memorize history in Burmese and write their answers in Burmese in exams, which is good in a way. The language is not difficult, so they can read it quickly. They can memorize it. They can answer it fluently. However, there are very few books written in Burmese. Therefore, there is a desire for more than one history book to be published.

Than Tun

9-6-61

1/1 Thaton Road, University District, Yangon.

A new concept of governance that emerged from the ancient bookkeeping systems and

How new organizations emerged in the West

Old way

Before the French Revolution in 1789, the system of government and social relations in various countries throughout Europe was often called the old system. Under the old system, there was a distinction between the privileged and the oppressed. The country was ruled by an absolute monarch. Officials were bribed and corrupt. The landowners were powerful. The clergy had influence over the king. All economic wealth was owned by a few, leaving the majority in deep poverty.

England 

Compared with other countries in the world, it can be said that England has the greatest hope for the welfare of the majority. Because the era of the monarchy, which was replaced by the rule of law and governed by parliament, has been emerging since the early eighteenth century, England has a higher political standard than most. In the eighteenth century, only the English model is considered the most suitable for the government of the country. In England, people are thought to be the freest. In fact, they are not free because of parliament. From the beginning, they were not able to tolerate the violation of the rights of the individual by the ruler, and therefore they have the freedom of speech as they do now. Now that parliament has become the greatest power, the king is only a figurehead and can do nothing beyond parliament in all important matters, such as taxation, legislation, corrections, judgments, and the command of the standing army. However, at that time, Parliament was not yet a true representative of the people as we know it today. Because not all adults could vote, as it is now, and because the number of members was not proportional to the population, it was a parliament composed only of representatives of the wealthy landowners. Every member of Parliament was also a landowner. Bribery and corruption were commonplace in those days. During the reigns of George I, the founder of the new English dynasty, and Robert Walpole, who was entrusted with the affairs of the country on behalf of the king, a cabinet called the Cabinet and a Prime Minister emerged. If Parliament did not continue to support the Cabinet, the entire Cabinet had to resign from office. The Cabinet was able to take over the government, and the king's role was limited to ceremonial duties. However, when George III ascended the throne in 1760, he attempted to intervene in the government as a monarch, with limited success, but the defeat in the American War gave rise to a revival of parliamentarianism. They began to push for a reform of Parliament to make it truly representative of the people. The most notable of these was the Chartist rebellion. The Chartists demanded (a) more voting rights, (b) a more equitable distribution of seats, (c) a salary for MPs, (d) a reduction in the property limit for candidates, (e) a secret ballot, and (f) annual parliamentary elections. While the French Revolution was still in progress, England was alarmed and stopped all reforms and even suppressed any attempts to reform.

France

The example of France is also noteworthy in breaking with the old system. The French king is an absolute monarch and rules the country according to his will. Although there is a council of advisors, they often follow the king's wishes. There is no organization independent of the king. The parliament of Paris is also a supreme court that confirms the king's decrees. Sometimes the parliament resists the unilateral will of the king, but it is not enough. In some provinces there are councils of advisors, and in cities there are city councils. However, they are not organizations that can express the will of the people. It can be said that the administration is very corrupt. There is no unity of law. In some regions, the ancient Roman tradition is used for judgment, and in some places German law is used. There are arbitrary arrests and detentions, and those who have acquired positions with money are judged according to their appearance. In the army, high positions are always held only by the sons of the nobles. By setting a predetermined amount of tax for each area, the tax collector can take whatever is left over, which leads to unjust extortion from the poor. In fact, the poor are the ones who

and the lower classes, called the middle classes, suffered the most. Louis XV did not care about the country, but spent his time on pleasure. Louis XVI, who had been willing to reform everything that was necessary in time, was more likely to be favored by the upper classes and the clergy, who enjoyed every opportunity and favored him. Despite the precedent, Louis XVI did not have the courage to reform when it was necessary. The treasury was very rich, and he faced even more financial difficulties due to the American war. Thinking that this would solve the money problem, he called a conference of important people in 1787. The conference recommended that a consultative assembly of the classes, which had not been convened since 1614, be convened to solve all the problems. This was the end of the absolute monarchy in France.

Lower class

The poorest and most laborious class are the peasants. In farming, we have never heard of any new methods of cultivating, such as selecting good varieties, fertilizing the soil, and sowing seeds. They do it in the old ways. Except in England, throughout Europe, the restrictions imposed on the farmers by the dukes of the old feudal period still remain. If there is a tax to pay, they are the ones who pay the largest amount. If there is a road to repair,

They work for free. They pay land taxes. They pay religious taxes. ' The landlords do not dare to refuse if they have other duties. If they accumulate excess money, the tax collector squeezes it out. They do not eat well, they do not dress well. In short, they are not able to live as a human being. In Russia, Poland, and Hungary, their condition is the worst. In England, they live the best, and in France, they are seen to be rising up and demanding as much as they can for reform.

Middle class (bourgeois)

Cities grew and multiplied in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. "The growth that followed the good trade was also the impetus for colonial expansion. In 1787, London had over a million inhabitants. Paris had five hundred thousand. There were eighty cities with over a thousand. Amsterdam, Hamburg, Bremen, and Frankfurt were particularly prosperous. By the eighteenth century, the artisans had changed from producing goods for their own consumption to producing them for sale for profit. Here, they were trying to find better ways of producing goods at lower cost than before. New kinds of goods were also being sold. Previously, trade was hampered by poor roads and government restrictions, but now ships were sailing all over the world. The East India Company, the Dutch East India Company, the Hartsville Company, etc., were powerful and monopolized trade. Monopoly Despite this, trade continued to grow. With this growth, the most important advantage was the handicrafts. The middle class, consisting of wholesale and retail merchants and merchants, emerged. In England and France, the bourgeoisie was at its best. If they had money, they prepared to have political power. The English bourgeoisie, relying on parliament, gained the power they needed. The French bourgeoisie was left with no choice but to act.

 

 

Upper class 

In Europe, the upper classes, such as the bishops and archbishops, and the nobles, are called the first and second classes. This is a small minority, only one in a hundred of the population. They are people of honor, position, and wealth. The upper classes are not worthy of praise for their morality and integrity. The nobles have bought the position of bishops and archbishops with money and are only false religious leaders. The real priests under them are pitifully poor. The nobles are also just people who are just people. They come and go in and out of the palace and squeeze as much tax as they can from the peasants in their own fields. There are also poor nobles who live in the countryside.

Religious belief

In Christianity, there are Roman Catholicism, Anglicanism, and other Protestant denominations. In the eighteenth century, the Roman Catholic Church was the strongest and most powerful. It did not negotiate with any sect that disagreed with it. It had once had political power, but now it is no longer as powerful as it once was. However, it still has to take the lead in education, perform marriages, and suppress heresy. Within this sect, there were smaller sects such as the Jenkins, the Februnians, and the Jesuits, which hindered its organization. The Anglican sect in England was wealthy and favored. Other Protestant sects who did not agree with it could not accept government positions without the permission of Parliament. Baptisms, births, and deaths, and marriages could be performed by priests of this sect. Meanwhile, Presbyterians, Unitarians, Lutherans, and Methodists emerged. In Germany, the Lutheran sect flourished. Beyond these, the churches and the Bible were said to be unworthy of devotion and to be no medium between God and man. In addition, with the rise of modern secular science, many people rejected the old religious beliefs.

 

New method

The eighteenth century was also a time of searching for new knowledge. Scholars were stubborn and said that if they could not prove it, they would not believe it. The Englishman Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) improved the telescope and developed the science of space. He was able to demonstrate the force of gravity of the earth through mathematics and methods. This was the beginning of the development of the science of the universe.

A great scientist, Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716), developed calculus with Newton, which led to the development of architecture. Benjamin Franklin Kern (1716-1790) studied lightning and discovered the nature of electricity.

He was also a leader of the American Revolution. Sir Charles Presley (1733-1804), Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794), and Henry Cavendish (31-1810) pioneered modern chemistry. Edward Ginn (1749-1823) began to demonstrate that smallpox could be prevented by vaccination. These new methods were developed and encouraged by worldly scientists and politicians. In 1662, in London, the Church and in France, the French Academy were established to discuss new discoveries. The printing press also facilitated the spread of knowledge. In the eighteenth century, there was a tendency to criticize and question all political, social, and religious institutions.